Communion or the Lord’s Supper

There are four common interpretations of what happens during the Communion or Lord’s Supper ritual performed in most Christian churches. They are called Transubstantiation, Consubstantiation, “Spiritual Presence” or “Spiritual Union,” and Memorialism. This article describes the origins of Communion and explains the different points of view on what happens during the ritual.

The interpretation of what happens in the ritual, called Communion or the Lord’s Supper, is a very contentious subject in Christianity. It was used as a litmus test in the past, and people were even executed for expressing the wrong view. Let us first explore where it comes from.

The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke describe the last Unleavened Bread meal, also called the Passover meal, that Jesus had with the twelve Apostles shortly before the crucifixion. This dinner is referred to as the Last Supper. During that meal, Jesus performed a ritual described as follows:

26 Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and after blessing it broke it and gave it to the disciples, and said, “Take, eat; this is my body.” 27 And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he gave it to them, saying, “Drink of it, all of you, 28 for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. 29 I tell you I will not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom.” Matt 26:26-29 and an almost identical version in Mark 14:22-25.

14 And when the hour came, he reclined at table, and the apostles with him. 15 And he said to them, “I have earnestly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. 16 For I tell you I will not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God.” 17 And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he said, “Take this, and divide it among yourselves. 18 For I tell you that from now on I will not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes.” 19 And he took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and gave it to them, saying, “This is my body, which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me.” 20 And likewise the cup after they had eaten, saying, “This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. Luke 22:14-20.

In this meal, Jesus took bread, gave a blessing, then broke the bread and gave it to the Apostles to eat, telling them it was his body given for them. Later, he had them all drink the wine and told them it was the blood of the new covenant, which was poured out for the forgiveness of sin. Jesus foretells what is about to happen to him and directs them to perform this ritual in the future in remembrance of him. They did not understand what he was telling them, but they would soon find out. In any case, this ritual performed by Jesus at the Passover dinner is the origin of the modern-day communion service. We see evidence in Acts and the epistles of Paul that the Apostles and the early church performed this ritual as Jesus directed them. For example, in Acts 2:42-46 and 1 Corinthians 11:20-29.

Transubstantiation

There is much debate about what Jesus meant when he gave the Apostles the bread, told them it was his body, gave them the wine, and said it was his blood of the new covenant. The Catholic Church asserts that in the ceremony, performed by an ordained priest or bishop, the bread is changed into the flesh of Christ and that the wine is changed into his blood. However, it retains the outward appearance of bread and wine. They assert it is quite literally his flesh and blood, not just symbolically. This view is called Transubstantiation.

The doctrine of transubstantiation was not always the view of the church. It was not defined until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 and then reaffirmed at The Council of Trent in 1551. Prior to the Fourth Lateran Council, some early church fathers believed that the bread and wine were transformed into the body and the blood of Christ (ex. Ignatius of Antioch, late first century or early second, or Justin Martyr c. 100 - 165) and others believed that it was a spiritual transformation or a symbolic act and that the body and blood references are metaphors for faith and hope (ex. Clement of Alexandria, late second century or Tertullian c. 160 – 225)

Some sources point to John 6 to justify the doctrine of transubstantiation:

52 The Jews then disputed among themselves, saying, “How can this man give us his flesh to eat?” 53 So Jesus said to them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you. 54 Whoever feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, and I will raise him up on the last day. 55 For my flesh is true food, and my blood is true drink. 56 Whoever feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood abides in me, and I in him. 57 As the living Father sent me, and I live because of the Father, so whoever feeds on me, he also will live because of me. 58 This is the bread that came down from heaven, not like the bread the fathers ate, and died. Whoever feeds on this bread will live forever.” 59 Jesus said these things in the synagogue, as he taught at Capernaum. John 6:52-59

There is a lot to unpack there. Some of it reads like he is talking about literal flesh and blood, and in other parts, it seems clearly to be metaphorical. However, in any case, John 6 is not talking about the ceremony that occurred at the Last Supper; he is talking about Jesus’ teaching in a synagogue in Capernaum. Do these passages relate to the mystery of what happens in communion? That is debatable since John does not mention the Last Supper communion ritual in his Gospel.

Today, the Catholic Church performs communion at every mass which is to say every day of the year except Good Friday. Catholics in a state of grace (meaning that they have confessed all mortal sins to a priest and have received absolution) are welcome to receive it daily. Non-Catholic Christians and non-Christians are not officially allowed to take communion in the Catholic Church.

One line of thought about what Jesus intended argues that if He intended for people to eat His flesh and drink his blood, he could have carved off a chunk of his flesh, filled a cup with his blood, and had them eat the flesh and drink the blood, then he could have healed himself. He didn’t do that; he used bread and wine to represent flesh and blood and told us to do the same. Jesus used metaphors, allegories, and analogies throughout his teachings, is this just another?

The Eastern Orthodox churches appear to hold a similar view as the Catholic Church. They assert the actual presence of Christ in the bread and wine, but some Orthodox writers use the term transubstantiation and others do not. It does not appear to be dogma like in the Catholic church. After all, it was formalized in the Catholic church after the East-West Schism in 1054.

Consubstantiation

In the protestant reformation, Martin Luther proposed a different view of the “real presence,” which was later named Consubstantiation. In his view, Christ is truly present “in, with, and under” the elements of the bread and wine, but the substance of the bread and wine is unchanged. So, Christ is consubstantial with the bread and wine, similar to how a sponge can be filled with water without changing its substance. Another term used to describe this idea is “sacramental union.” These are not new ideas; some of the church fathers expressed similar ideas, as mentioned above, but the denial of Transubstantiation became a central theme in the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther suggested that 1 Corinthians 11 supported his view.

23 For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, 24 and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, “This is my body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.” 25 In the same way also he took the cup, after supper, saying, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.” 26 For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. 1 Cor 11:23-26

At the end of the passage, Paul still refers to the elements as bread and drink, implying that they symbolize Christ's body and blood. On the frequency of receiving communion, Luther thought that we should celebrate communion frequently, at least weekly. The Bible does not say how often we should do this in remembrance of Jesus.

Spiritual Presence or Spiritual Union

John Clavin proposed another view during the Protestant Reformation called “Spiritual Presence” or “Spiritual Union.” He rejected the Catholic view of Transubstantiation and Luther’s view of Consubstantiation. In his view, Christ is spiritually present with the faithful in the communion ritual, and when we take communion, we experience spiritual union with Christ. He did not believe Christ’s presence came into us from the bread and wine in some way, but rather came into us from performing the ritual as Jesus instructed us to do. Calvin’s Institutes of Religion Chapter 7 discusses his views. Here is a relevant quote:

Christ can exert his energy wherever he pleases, in earth and heaven, can manifest his presence by the exercise of his power, can always be present with his people, breathing into them his own life, can live in them, sustain, confirm, and invigorate them, and preserve them safe, just as if he were with them in the body; in fine, can feed them with his own body, communion with which he transfuses into them. After this manner, the body and blood of Christ are exhibited to us in the sacrament. The presence of Christ in the Supper we must hold to be such as neither affixes him to the element of bread, nor encloses him in bread, nor circumscribes him in any way (this would obviously detract from his celestial glory); and it must, moreover, be such as neither divests him of his just dimensions, nor dissevers him by differences of place, nor assigns to him a body of boundless dimensions, diffused through heaven and earth. All these things are clearly repugnant to his true human nature. Institutes Ch 7.18-19

On the frequency of receiving communion, Calvin thought that we should celebrate communion weekly at every formal gathering of the church.

Memorialism

Huldrych Zwingli, another important reformation figure in Switzerland, proposed that communion was a symbolic commemoration ritual performed to remind us of Christ’s sacrifice for us on the cross that Jesus himself asked us to do in remembrance of Him. Zwingli believed that we receive Christ spiritually in our minds during the ritual, not orally by consuming the bread and wine. He suggested that when Jesus said, “This is my body/blood,” it should be understood as “This signifies my body/blood.” This view has been named Memorialism. Zwingli suggested that it be performed four times per year, once in the autumn and on Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost so that it did not become too common or ritualized.

Communion Today

Today the Catholic Church teaches Transubstantiation and asserts it is a mortal sin to believe differently. However, Pew Research did a poll that asked Catholics if they believe in Transubstantiation, and only 31% said they did. Vinea Research did a poll asking mass-attending Catholics if they believe in the “real presence,” and 69% said they do. So, I take that to mean 31% believe in transubstantiation, another 38% believe something like Martin Luther’s view of Consubstantiation, and the other 31% believe in either Calvin’s Spiritual Presence view or Zwingli’s Memorialism view.

As best I can tell, Orthodox Churches teach Transubstantiation, but don’t call it that or Consubstantiation. They do not require people to characterize their view either way; they assert it is a mystery.

The third largest Christian tradition, Anglican, expresses its view in Article 28 of the 39 Articles of Religion, Of the Lord's Supper:

The Supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another, but rather it is a Sacrament of our Redemption by Christ's death: insomuch that to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ; and likewise the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ.

Transubstantiation (or the change of the substance of Bread and Wine) in the Supper of the Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ; but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions.

The Body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after an heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the Body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper, is Faith.

The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped.

Some people assert that this is Martin Luther’s consubstantiation view, and others argue that it is John Calvin’s view of spiritual presence. I can see both ideas reflected in this Article. Anglicans allow anyone baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit to receive communion and they do it frequently.

Lutheran churches teach consubstantiation. Reformed, Methodist, most Presbyterian, and some Baptist churches teach Calvin’s view of spiritual presence/union. Other Baptist churches, Anabaptists, some non-denominational churches, and LDS churches believe it is symbolic as in Memorialism. Non-denominational churches vary widely in their beliefs on communion, and some churches rarely give communion. Some that I checked give it once per year on Easter.

Summary

Which view is correct, Transubstantiation, Consubstantiation, Spiritual Presence/Union, or Memorialism? It is truly a mystery that cannot be proved by science or reason. What actually occurs is a matter of faith. We know from the Gospels that Jesus instructed us to perform this ritual in remembrance of Him and that in some way the bread and wine either are, or include, or represent His body and blood that were sacrificed for us. I think that what is most important is that faithful Christians should celebrate communion as Jesus asked us to do, in remembrance of Him.

Douglas A. Leas, January 2025

Sources:

The Holy Bible, English Standard Version (ESV), 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers.(The source of the Bible Quotes in this article.)

Allison, Gregg, 2020, Transubstantiation, Consubstantiation, or Something Else?

Corbitt Sonja, Mar 8, 2018, Early Church Fathers Upholding Transubstantiation in Their Own Words

Calvin, J. (1536) "Institutes of Christian Religion"

Mathison, Keith, n.d., Calvin's Doctrine of the Lord's Supper

Martin Luther, “Confession Concerning Christ’s Supper – Part III” Martin Luther’s Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition, edited by Timothy F. Lull (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005).

Wayne, Luke, Dec 3, 2018, Clement of Alexandria and Transubstantiation, CARM